Phase of academic life cycle (students) | Examples and results |
---|---|
Career selection | ā¢ Gender stereotypes and segregation in health professional cadres such as nursing and nutrition (Kenya) [10] |
Admission and entry | ā¢ Negative attitudes against girls and women pursuing training and scholarship opportunities [6] ā¢ Lower admission rates of female students at tertiary education institutions (Rwanda) [53] |
Course participation and completion | ā¢ Threats of failing grades against female students made by male faculty if students refuse sexual advances, leading to difficulty concentrating on studies or failed courses (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Zimbabwe) [10, 20, 54ā56] ā¢ Demotion fees levied against students for taking time off for pregnancy and falling behind in their programs (Kenya) [10] |
Career progression | ā¢ Sexual harassment during medical training, affecting selection of medical specialty and residency programs (Japan, Sweden, USA) [5, 57ā60] ā¢ Attitudes discouraging female medical residents from becoming pregnant (USA) [8] |
Retention and graduation | ā¢ Unsafe living conditions, limiting studentsā ability to safely access university facilities and contributing to dropouts of female students [11] ā¢ Threats of failing grades against female students by male faculty if students refuse sexual advances, leading to graduation delays or dropouts (Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Zimbabwe) [10, 20, 53ā56] ā¢ Required suspension or termination of studies when female students become pregnant (Namibia, Kenya) [9, 10] ā¢ Insufficient time for students with family and domestic responsibilities to participate in educational opportunities, contributing to dropouts (Tanzania, Uganda, UK, USA) [11ā13] ā¢ Higher dropout rates of female students at all educational levels (Rwanda) [53] |