Table 2 Coefficient estimates expressed as incidence rate ratios (IRR) from a negative binomial model associating nurse/midwife-to-population ratio (NMPR) and physician-to-population ratio (PPR) with macro-level variables at the country level

 Schooling (years)

1.216***

1.183***

1.185***

1.221***

1.192***

1.189***

  Emigrant

1.460*

1.441*

1.458*

2.121***

1.848***

1.757***

  Immigrant

1.434

1.341

1.321

1.641**

1.449

1.456

 Urban population (%)

1.003

0.999

0.999

1.019***

1.010**

1.010**

 Beds-per-1000 people

1.104***

1.108***

1.110***

1.167***

1.151***

1.145***

 Public health exp

1.009

1.011

1.006

0.941

0.934*

0.953

 Private health exp

0.954

0.993

0.992

1.03

1.054

1.061

 Autocracy

1.045

1.042

0.943

0.94

 Anocracy

1.407

1.421*

1.17

1.137

 Gini

1

1

0.995

0.996

  Middle

0.699

0.709

0.902

0.837

  Low

0.322***

0.333***

0.339***

0.303***

 External debt

0.958

0.958

1.009

1.014

 GDPPPP

1.003

1

1.052

1.058

 GEM

1.243

0.461

Sample size

173

184

184

173

184

184

Maximum likelihood R²

0.566

0.625

0.627

0.651

0.721

0.729