(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Physician workforce costs | Hospital costs for diabetes | Hospital costs for comorbid conditions | All-cause healthcare costs | |||||
Exposed group | Control group | Exposed group | Control group | Exposed group | Control group | Exposed group | Control group | |
1. Female providers | ||||||||
Pre-P4P | 6.266 | 6.319 | 0.099 | 0.192 | 0.366 | 0.629 | 6.485 | 6.741 |
Difference | − 0.053** (0.016) | − 0.092** (0.018) | − 2.63** (0.023) | − 0.256** (0.022) | ||||
Post-P4P | 6.503 | 6.339 | 0.100 | 0.144 | 0.411 | 0.591 | 6.763 | 6.754 |
Difference | 0.165** (0.015) | − 0.044** (0.014) | − 0.181** (0.023) | 0.009 (0.019) | ||||
Diff-in-diff | 0.218** (0.024) | 0.049* (0.021) | 0.082* (0.035) | 0.265** (0.031) | ||||
2. Male providers | ||||||||
Pre-P4P | 6.229 | 6.321 | 0.108 | 0.180 | 0.405 | 0.660 | 6.462 | 6.760 |
Difference | − 0.093** (0.010) | − 0.071** (0.010) | − 0.255** (0.018) | − 0.298** (0.015) | ||||
Post-P4P | 6.460 | 6.400 | 0.118 | 0.187 | 0.444 | 0.710 | 6.726 | 6.837 |
Difference | 0.059** (0.008) | −0.069** (0.009) | − 0.266** (0.018) | − 0.111** (0.011) | ||||
Diff-in-diff | 0.152** (0.011) | 0.002 (0.014) | −0.011 (0.024) | 0.188** (0.018) |