Table 5 Association between cluster-level exposure to ASHA measured as “intensity of exposure” and maternity service utilization outcomes using a linear probability model with fixed effects at the cluster level
ANC-1 (N = 24 565) | ANC-4 (N = 24 578) | SBA (N = 24 240) | Facility birth (N = 24 519) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β(95% CI) | p value | β(95% CI) | p value | β(95% CI) | p value | β(95% CI) | p value | |||||
Outcome | 0.17 | (0.118–0.221) | 0.000 | 0.047 | (− 0.016–0.011) | 0.146 | 0.258 | (0.206–0.310) | 0.000 | 0.276 | 0.224–0.326) | 0 |
Maternal age (years) | ||||||||||||
15–19 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
20–24 | − 0.012 | (− 0.038–0.014) | 0.362 | 0.012 | (− 0.023–0.046) | 0.503 | 0.003 | (− 0.030–0.037) | 0.848 | − 0.001 | (− 0.033–0.032 | 0.967 |
25–29 | − 0.009 | (− 0.034–0.018) | 0.527 | 0.010 | (− 0.026–0.045) | 0.591 | − 0.018 | (− 0.051–0.015) | 0.277 | − 0.028 | (− 0.061–0.005) | 0.091 |
30–34 | − 0.01 | (− 0.039–0.019) | 0.5 | 0.023 | (− 0.013–0.060) | 0.209 | − 0.024 | (− 0.059-0.010) | 0.169 | − 0.041 | (− 0.076–0.006) | 0.020 |
35–39 | − 0.022 | (− 0.053–0.009) | 0.173 | 0.027 | (− 0.012–0.067) | 0.182 | − 0.004 | (− 0.042–0.034) | 0.837 | − 0.024 | (− 0.062–0.014) | 0.212 |
≥ 40 | − 0.027 | (− 0.067–0.013) | 0.186 | 0.043 | (− 0.002–0.088) | 0.060 | − 0.007 | (− 0.053–0.038) | 0.744 | − 0.026 | (− 0.071–0.019) | 0.257 |
Education | – | – | ||||||||||
No education | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
1–5 years | 0.049 | (0.034–0.065) | 0.000 | 0.035 | (0.017–0.053) | 0.000 | 0.043 | (0.024–0.062) | 0.000 | 0.032 | (0.013–0.051) | 0.001 |
6–11 years | 0.065 | (0.052–0.079) | 0.000 | 0.094 | (0.076–0.112) | 0.000 | 0.096 | (0.079–0.113) | 0.000 | 0.102 | (0.085–0.118) | 0.000 |
12 years or more | 0.072 | (0.056–0.088) | 0.000 | 0.164 | (0.139–0.188) | 0.000 | 0.143 | (0.123–0.164) | 0.000 | 0.161 | (0.139–0.183) | 0.000 |
Caste | – | |||||||||||
Forward caste | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Other backward castes | − 0.017 | (− 0.030–0.005) | 0.008 | − 0.009 | (− 0.026–0.009) | 0.344 | − 0.020 | (− 0.036––0.003) | 0.017 | − 0.026 | (− 0.043–0.010) | 0.002 |
Scheduled castes | − 0.019 | (− 0.035–0.004) | 0.015 | − 0.036 | (− 0.056–0.015) | 0.001 | − 0.028 | (− 0.048–0.009) | 0.004 | − 0.04 | (− 0.061–0.019) | 0.000 |
Scheduled tribes | − 0.038 | (− 0.064–0.013) | 0.003 | − 0.054 | (− 0.086–0.021) | 0.001 | − 0.083 | (− 0.115–0.051) | 0.000 | − 0.076 | (− 0.107–0.044) | 0.000 |
Religion | – | |||||||||||
Hindu | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Muslim | 0.002 | (− 0.018–0.023) | 0.799 | − 0.017 | (− 0.042–0.008) | 0.18 | − 0.012 | (− 0.036–0.012) | 0.339 | − 0.032 | (− 0.057–0.006) | 0.014 |
Others religions | − 0.004 | (− 0.025–0.018) | 0.75 | 0.021 | (− 0.015–0.058) | 0.254 | − 0.022 | (− 0.047–0.003) | 0.083 | − 0.019 | (− 0.047–0.009) | 0.181 |
Urban/rural residence | – | |||||||||||
Urban | − 0.038 | (− 0.095–0.019) | 0.188 | − 0.054 | (− 0.183–0.075) | 0.413 | − 0.082 | (− 0.165–0.000) | 0.051 | − 0.054 | (− 0.138–0.029) | 0.200 |
Rural | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||||||||
Wealth quintile | ||||||||||||
Lowest | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||||
Lower | 0.053 | (0.037–0.070) | 0.000 | 0.038 | (0.021–0.056) | 0.000 | 0.053 | (0.034–0.072) | 0.000 | 0.024 | (0.005–0.044) | 0.014 |
Middle | 0.078 | (0.060–0.967) | 0.000 | 0.071 | (0.049–0.093) | 0.000 | 0.089 | (0.067–0.111) | 0.000 | 0.067 | (0.044–0.089) | 0.000 |
Richer | 0.092 | (0.072–0.112) | 0.000 | 0.094 | (0.069–0.119) | 0.000 | 0.123 | (0.099–0.247) | 0.000 | 0.104 | (0.080–0.129) | 0.000 |
Richest | 0.109 | (0.088–0.131) | 0.000 | 0.157 | (0.127–0.187) | 0.000 | 0.164 | (0.137–0.190) | 0.000 | 0.154 | (0.126–0.182) | 0.000 |
Parity | − 0.022 | (− 0.026–0.018) | 0.000 | − 0.02 | (− 0.025–0.017) | 0.000 | − 0.031 | (− 0.036–0.026) | 0.000 | − 0.031 | (− 0.036–0.026) | 0.000 |